Mitochondrial N-formyl methionine peptides contribute to exaggerated neutrophil activation in patients with COVID-19.

Neutrophil dysregulation is well established in COVID-19. However, factors contributing to neutrophil activation in COVID-19 are not clear. We assessed if N-formyl methionine (fMet) contributes to neutrophil activation in COVID-19. Elevated levels of calprotectin, neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) and fMet were observed in COVID-19 patients (n = 68), particularly in critically ill patients, as compared to HC (n = 19, p < 0.0001). Of note, the levels of NETs were higher in ICU patients with COVID-19 than in ICU patients without COVID-19 (p < 0.05), suggesting a prominent contribution of NETs in COVID-19. Additionally, plasma from COVID-19 patients with mild and moderate/severe symptoms induced in vitro neutrophil activation through fMet/FPR1 (formyl peptide receptor-1) dependent mechanisms (p < 0.0001). fMet levels correlated with calprotectin levels validating fMet-mediated neutrophil activation in COVID-19 patients (r = 0.60, p = 0.0007). Our data indicate that fMet is an important factor contributing to neutrophil activation in COVID-19 disease and may represent a potential target for therapeutic intervention.

Angiopoietin-Like4 Is a Novel Marker of COVID-19 Severity.

Vascular dysfunction and capillary leak are common in critically ill COVID-19 patients, but identification of endothelial pathways involved in COVID-19 pathogenesis has been limited. Angiopoietin-like 4 (ANGPTL4) is a protein secreted in response to hypoxic and nutrient-poor conditions that has a variety of biological effects including vascular injury and capillary leak. OBJECTIVES: To assess the role of ANGPTL4 in COVID-19-related outcomes. DESIGN SETTING AND PARTICIPANTS: Two hundred twenty-five COVID-19 ICU patients were enrolled from April 2020 to May 2021 in a prospective, multicenter cohort study from three different medical centers, University of Washington, University of Southern California and New York University. MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES: Plasma ANGPTL4 was measured on days 1, 7, and 14 after ICU admission. We used previously published tissue proteomic data and lung single nucleus RNA (snRNA) sequencing data from specimens collected from COVID-19 patients to determine the tissues and cells that produce ANGPTL4. RESULTS: Higher plasma ANGPTL4 concentrations were significantly associated with worse hospital mortality (adjusted odds ratio per log2 increase, 1.53; 95% CI, 1.17-2.00; p = 0.002). Higher ANGPTL4 concentrations were also associated with higher proportions of venous thromboembolism and acute respiratory distress syndrome. Longitudinal ANGPTL4 concentrations were significantly different during the first 2 weeks of hospitalization in patients who subsequently died compared with survivors (p for interaction = 8.1 × 10-5). Proteomics analysis demonstrated abundance of ANGPTL4 in lung tissue compared with other organs in COVID-19. ANGPTL4 single-nuclear RNA gene expression was significantly increased in pulmonary alveolar type 2 epithelial cells and fibroblasts in COVID-19 lung tissue compared with controls. CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE: ANGPTL4 is expressed in pulmonary epithelial cells and fibroblasts and is associated with clinical prognosis in critically ill COVID-19 patients.

Perceived Hospital Stress, Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 Activity, and Care Process Temporal Variance During the COVID-19 Pandemic.

OBJECTIVES: The COVID-19 pandemic threatened standard hospital operations. We sought to understand how this stress was perceived and manifested within individual hospitals and in relation to local viral activity. DESIGN: Prospective weekly hospital stress survey, November 2020-June 2022. SETTING: Society of Critical Care Medicine's Discovery Severe Acute Respiratory Infection-Preparedness multicenter cohort study. SUBJECTS: Thirteen hospitals across seven U.S. health systems. INTERVENTIONS: None. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: We analyzed 839 hospital-weeks of data over 85 pandemic weeks and five viral surges. Perceived overall hospital, ICU, and emergency department (ED) stress due to severe acute respiratory infection patients during the pandemic were reported by a mean of 43% ( sd , 36%), 32% (30%), and 14% (22%) of hospitals per week, respectively, and perceived care deviations in a mean of 36% (33%). Overall hospital stress was highly correlated with ICU stress (ρ = 0.82; p < 0.0001) but only moderately correlated with ED stress (ρ = 0.52; p < 0.0001). A county increase in 10 severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 cases per 100,000 residents was associated with an increase in the odds of overall hospital, ICU, and ED stress by 9% (95% CI, 5-12%), 7% (3-10%), and 4% (2-6%), respectively. During the Delta variant surge, overall hospital stress persisted for a median of 11.5 weeks (interquartile range, 9-14 wk) after local case peak. ICU stress had a similar pattern of resolution (median 11 wk [6-14 wk] after local case peak; p = 0.59) while the resolution of ED stress (median 6 wk [5-6 wk] after local case peak; p = 0.003) was earlier. There was a similar but attenuated pattern during the Omicron BA.1 subvariant surge. CONCLUSIONS: During the COVID-19 pandemic, perceived care deviations were common and potentially avoidable patient harm was rare. Perceived hospital stress persisted for weeks after surges peaked.

Plasma Interleukin-6 Predicts Clinical Decline After Completion of Dexamethasone Therapy in Severe COVID-19.

To identify and characterize clinical decline after completion of dexamethasone in severe COVID-19 and determine whether interleukin (IL)-6 and other inflammatory biomarkers predict the occurrence of clinical decline. DESIGN: Prospective observational cohort. SETTING: ICUs in three University of Washington affiliated hospitals between July 2020 and April 2021. PATIENTS: Patients admitted to an ICU with COVID-19 who completed a course of dexamethasone. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: We identified 65 adult patients with severe COVID-19 who completed a 10-day course of dexamethasone, of whom 60 had plasma samples collected within 3 days of dexamethasone completion. We measured IL-6 with a clinical-grade electrochemiluminescent assay and a larger panel of inflammatory biomarkers (IL-8, Monocyte Chemoattractant Protein-1, Monocyte Inflammatory Protein-1 alpha, interferon gamma, C-X-C Motif Chemokine Ligand 10, WBC, bicarbonate) with a research immunoassay. We defined clinical decline by the occurrence of incident severe kidney injury, incident or escalating shock or fever, worsening hypoxemia, or death within 5 days of completion of dexamethasone. We estimated risk for clinical decline by standardized log2 transformed biomarker concentration using multivariable logistic regression. Clinical decline post-dexamethasone was common, occurring in 49% of patients (n = 32). Among all biomarkers, IL-6 levels were most strongly associated with clinical decline. After adjustment for age, sex, and study site, the odds of post-dexamethasone clinical decline were 7.33 times higher per one sd increase in log2 transformed IL-6 concentrations (adjusted odds ratio, 7.33; CI, 2.62-20.47; p < 0.001). The discriminatory power of IL-6 for clinical decline was high (cross-validated mean area under the receiver operating characteristic curve, 0.90; 95% CI, 0.79-0.95). CONCLUSIONS: Clinical decline after completion of dexamethasone for severe COVID-19 is common. IL-6 concentrations obtained prior to completion of dexamethasone may have utility in identifying those at highest risk for subsequent worsening. If validated, future work might test whether plasma IL-6 could be used as a tool for a personalized approach to duration of dexamethasone treatment in severe COVID-19.

Presence of Antibodies to Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus-2 on Admission Is Associated With Decreased Mortality in COVID-19 Critical Illness.

To determine whether the early serologic response in COVID-19 critical illness is associated with hospital mortality. To evaluate if time-to-seroconversion differs by receipt of dexamethasone therapy. DESIGN: Patients were prospectively enrolled within 24 hours of ICU admission from two University of Washington Hospitals. Plasma was collected on enrollment and on days 3, 7, 10, and 14. SETTING: ICUs between March 2020 and April 2021. PATIENTS: Consecutive adults with COVID-19 admitted to an ICU. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: We measured longitudinal total antispike protein antibody levels (anti-S abs) and total antinucleocapsid antibody levels (anti-N ab) using a U.S. Food and Drug Administration-authorized Roche instrument. We evaluated whether detectable anti-S abs on ICU admission were associated with host factors, initial disease severity, and hospital mortality. We evaluated whether dexamethasone therapy was associated with time-to-seroconversion. Among 93 unvaccinated participants, 47 (51%) had detectable anti-S abs on ICU admission. There was no difference in Acute Physiology and Chronic Health Evaluation II score or time between first positive severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 PCR and ICU admission in those with detectable versus undetectable anti-S abs. Adjusting for age, body mass index, and sex, patients with detectable anti-S abs had a lower risk of inhospital death (hazard ratio, 0.40; 95% CI, 0.17-0.94; p = 0.04). Among 21 patients with undetectable anti-S abs on ICU admission and serial measurements available, time-to-seroconversion was not significantly affected by receipt of dexamethasone therapy. CONCLUSIONS: In COVID-19 critical illness, a significant proportion of patients do not have detectable antibodies at ICU admission, and this is independent of severity of illness. Detectable anti-S abs were associated with lower risk of inhospital death. Despite concern that corticosteroids may impair an appropriate antiviral serologic response, early antibody kinetics were not significantly affected by administration of dexamethasone; however, CIs were wide and require further study.

Chemokines, soluble PD-L1, and immune cell hyporesponsiveness are distinct features of SARS-CoV-2 critical illness.

Critically ill patients manifest many of the same immune features seen in coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), including both "cytokine storm" and "immune suppression." However, direct comparisons of molecular and cellular profiles between contemporaneously enrolled critically ill patients with and without severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) are limited. We sought to identify immune signatures specifically enriched in critically ill patients with COVID-19 compared with patients without COVID-19. We enrolled a multisite prospective cohort of patients admitted under suspicion for COVID-19, who were then determined to be SARS-CoV-2-positive (n = 204) or -negative (n = 122). SARS-CoV-2-positive patients had higher plasma levels of CXCL10, sPD-L1, IFN-γ, CCL26, C-reactive protein (CRP), and TNF-α relative to SARS-CoV-2-negative patients adjusting for demographics and severity of illness (Bonferroni P value < 0.05). In contrast, the levels of IL-6, IL-8, IL-10, and IL-17A were not significantly different between the two groups. In SARS-CoV-2-positive patients, higher plasma levels of sPD-L1 and TNF-α were associated with fewer ventilator-free days (VFDs) and higher mortality rates (Bonferroni P value < 0.05). Lymphocyte chemoattractants such as CCL17 were associated with more severe respiratory failure in SARS-CoV-2-positive patients, but less severe respiratory failure in SARS-CoV-2-negative patients (P value for interaction < 0.01). Circulating T cells and monocytes from SARS-CoV-2-positive subjects were hyporesponsive to in vitro stimulation compared with SARS-CoV-2-negative subjects. Critically ill SARS-CoV-2-positive patients exhibit an immune signature of high interferon-induced lymphocyte chemoattractants (e.g., CXCL10 and CCL17) and immune cell hyporesponsiveness when directly compared with SARS-CoV-2-negative patients. This suggests a specific role for T-cell migration coupled with an immune-checkpoint regulatory response in COVID-19-related critical illness.

Plasma Soluble CD14 Subtype Levels Are Associated With Clinical Outcomes in Critically Ill Subjects With Coronavirus Disease 2019.

IMPORTANCE: In bacterial sepsis, CD14 and its N-terminal fragment (soluble CD14 subtype, "Presepsin") have been characterized as markers of innate immune responses and emerging evidence has linked both to coronavirus disease 2019 pathophysiology. OBJECTIVES: Our aim was to determine the relationship between the soluble form of CD14 and soluble CD14 subtype plasma levels, coronavirus disease 2019 status, and coronavirus disease 2019-related outcomes. DESIGN: A prospective cohort study. SETTING: ICUs in three tertiary hospitals in Seattle, WA. PARTICIPANTS: Two-hundred four critically ill patients under investigation for coronavirus disease 2019. MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES: We measured plasma soluble CD14 and soluble CD14 subtype levels in samples collected upon admission. We tested for associations between biomarker levels and coronavirus disease 2019 status. We stratified by coronavirus disease 2019 status and tested for associations between biomarker levels and outcomes. RESULTS: Among 204 patients, 102 patients had coronavirus disease 2019 and 102 patients did not. In both groups, the most common ICU admission diagnosis was respiratory failure or pneumonia and proportions receiving respiratory support at admission were similar. In regression analyses adjusting for age, sex, race/ethnicity, steroid therapy, comorbidities, and severity of illness, soluble CD14 subtype was 54% lower in coronavirus disease 2019 than noncoronavirus disease 2019 patients (fold difference, 0.46; 95% CI, 0.28-0.77; p = 0.003). In contrast to soluble CD14 subtype, soluble CD14 levels did not differ between coronavirus disease 2019 and noncoronavirus disease 2019 patients. In both coronavirus disease 2019 and noncoronavirus disease 2019, in analyses adjusting for age, sex, race/ethnicity, steroid therapy, and comorbidities, higher soluble CD14 subtype levels were associated with death (coronavirus disease 2019: adjusted relative risk, 1.21; 95% CI, 1.06-1.39; p = 0.006 and noncoronavirus disease 2019: adjusted relative risk, 1.19; 95% CI, 1.03-1.38; p = 0.017), shock, and fewer ventilator-free days. In coronavirus disease 2019 only, an increase in soluble CD14 subtype was associated with severe acute kidney injury (adjusted relative risk, 1.23; 95% CI, 1.05-1.44; p = 0.013). CONCLUSIONS: Higher plasma soluble CD14 subtype is associated with worse clinical outcomes in critically ill patients irrespective of coronavirus disease 2019 status though soluble CD14 subtype levels were lower in coronavirus disease 2019 patients than noncoronavirus disease 2019 patients. Soluble CD14 subtype levels may have prognostic utility in coronavirus disease 2019.

Progressive Pulmonary Fibrosis After Non-Critical COVID-19: A Case Report.

BACKGROUND The COVID-19 global pandemic is ongoing, and despite vaccination efforts, SARS-CoV-2 continues to circulate worldwide. The spectrum of COVID-19 illness is broad, from asymptomatic infection to respiratory failure and acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), and the long-term sequelae of infection are unclear. COVID-19-related pulmonary fibrosis has been previously described in the setting of critical illness and ARDS but has not been well described in cases requiring minimal supplemental oxygen. CASE REPORT We present the case of a 42-year-old man hospitalized with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) who initially required minimal supplemental oxygen but weeks later developed progressive pulmonary fibrosis requiring high-flow nasal cannula and ICU admission. Using novel computed tomography (CT) imaging processing techniques, we demonstrate progression from initial ground-glass opacities to pulmonary fibrosis and traction bronchiectasis over several months. Additionally, we describe clinical responsiveness to an extended course of corticosteroids. CONCLUSIONS Although pulmonary fibrosis is a known complication of severe COVID-19-related ARDS requiring mechanical ventilation, our report suggests that patients with milder forms of COVID-19 infection may develop post-acute pulmonary fibrosis.

TLRs in COVID-19: How they drive immunopathology and the rationale for modulation.

COVID-19 is both a viral illness and a disease of immunopathology. Proximal events within the innate immune system drive the balance between deleterious inflammation and viral clearance. We hypothesize that a divergence between the generation of excessive inflammation through over activation of the TLR associated myeloid differentiation primary response (MyD88) pathway relative to the TIR-domain-containing adaptor-inducing IFN-ß (TRIF) pathway plays a key role in COVID-19 severity. Both viral elements and damage associated host molecules act as TLR ligands in this process. In this review, we detail the mechanism for this imbalance in COVID-19 based on available evidence, and we discuss how modulation of critical elements may be important in reducing severity of disease.

Cross-validation of SARS-CoV-2 responses in kidney organoids and clinical populations.

Kidneys are critical target organs of COVID-19, but susceptibility and responses to infection remain poorly understood. Here, we combine SARS-CoV-2 variants with genome-edited kidney organoids and clinical data to investigate tropism, mechanism, and therapeutics. SARS-CoV-2 specifically infects organoid proximal tubules among diverse cell types. Infections produce replicating virus, apoptosis, and disrupted cell morphology, features of which are revealed in the context of polycystic kidney disease. Cross-validation of gene expression patterns in organoids reflects proteomic signatures of COVID-19 in the urine of critically ill patients indicating interferon pathway upregulation. SARS-CoV-2 viral variants alpha, beta, gamma, kappa, and delta exhibit comparable levels of infection in organoids. Infection is ameliorated in ACE2-/- organoids and blocked via treatment with de novo-designed spike binder peptides. Collectively, these studies clarify the impact of kidney infection in COVID-19 as reflected in organoids and clinical populations, enabling assessment of viral fitness and emerging therapies.

Tocilizumab in hospitalized patients with COVID-19: Clinical outcomes, inflammatory marker kinetics, and safety.

Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) due to infection with severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 causes substantial morbidity. Tocilizumab, an interleukin-6 receptor antagonist, might improve outcomes by mitigating inflammation. We conducted a retrospective study of patients admitted to the University of Washington Hospital system with COVID-19 and requiring supplemental oxygen. Outcomes included clinical improvement, defined as a two-point reduction in severity on a six-point ordinal scale or discharge, and mortality within 28 days. We used Cox proportional-hazards models with propensity score inverse probability weighting to compare outcomes in patients who did and did not receive tocilizumab. We evaluated 43 patients who received tocilizumab and 45 who did not. Patients receiving tocilizumab were younger with fewer comorbidities but higher baseline oxygen requirements. Tocilizumab treatment was associated with reduced C-reactive protein, fibrinogen, and temperature, but there were no meaningful differences in time to clinical improvement (adjusted hazard ratio [aHR], 0.92; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.38-2.22) or mortality (aHR, 0.57; 95% CI, 0.21-1.52). A numerically higher proportion of tocilizumab-treated patients had subsequent infections, transaminitis, and cytopenias. Tocilizumab did not improve outcomes in hospitalized patients with COVID-19. However, this study was not powered to detect small differences, and there remains the possibility for a survival benefit.

Comparison of Clinical Features and Outcomes in Critically Ill Patients Hospitalized with COVID-19 versus Influenza.

Rationale: No direct comparisons of clinical features, laboratory values, and outcomes between critically ill patients with coronavirus disease (COVID-19) and patients with influenza in the United States have been reported.Objectives: To evaluate the risk of mortality comparing critically ill patients with COVID-19 with patients with seasonal influenza.Methods: We retrospectively identified patients admitted to the intensive care units (ICUs) at two academic medical centers with laboratory-confirmed severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) or influenza A or B infections between January 1, 2019, and April 15, 2020. The clinical data were obtained by medical record review. All patients except one had follow-up to hospital discharge or death. We used relative risk regression adjusting for age, sex, number of comorbidities, and maximum sequential organ failure scores on Day 1 in the ICU to determine the risk of hospital mortality and organ dysfunction in patients with COVID-19 compared with patients with influenza.Results: We identified 65 critically ill patients with COVID-19 and 74 patients with influenza. The mean (±standard deviation) age in each group was 60.4 ± 15.7 and 56.8 ± 17.6 years, respectively. Patients with COVID-19 were more likely to be male, have a higher body mass index, and have higher rates of chronic kidney disease and diabetes. Of the patients with COVID-19, 37% identified as Hispanic, whereas 10% of the patients with influenza identified as Hispanic. A similar proportion of patients had fevers (∼40%) and lymphopenia (∼80%) on hospital presentation. The rates of acute kidney injury and shock requiring vasopressors were similar between the groups. Although the need for invasive mechanical ventilation was also similar in both groups, patients with COVID-19 had slower improvements in oxygenation, longer durations of mechanical ventilation, and lower rates of extubation than patients with influenza. The hospital mortality was 40% in patients with COVID-19 and 19% in patients with influenza (adjusted relative risk, 2.13; 95% confidence interval, 1.24-3.63; P = 0.006).Conclusions: The need for invasive mechanical ventilation was common in patients in the ICU for COVID-19 and influenza. Compared with those with influenza, patients in the ICU with COVID-19 had worse respiratory outcomes, including longer duration of mechanical ventilation. In addition, patients with COVID-19 were at greater risk for in-hospital mortality, independent of age, sex, comorbidities, and ICU severity of illness.

Comparison of host endothelial, epithelial and inflammatory response in ICU patients with and without COVID-19: a prospective observational cohort study.

BACKGROUND: Analyses of blood biomarkers involved in the host response to severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) viral infection can reveal distinct biological pathways and inform development and testing of therapeutics for COVID-19. Our objective was to evaluate host endothelial, epithelial and inflammatory biomarkers in COVID-19. METHODS: We prospectively enrolled 171 ICU patients, including 78 (46%) patients positive and 93 (54%) negative for SARS-CoV-2 infection from April to September, 2020. We compared 22 plasma biomarkers in blood collected within 24 h and 3 days after ICU admission. RESULTS: In critically ill COVID-19 and non-COVID-19 patients, the most common ICU admission diagnoses were respiratory failure or pneumonia, followed by sepsis and other diagnoses. Similar proportions of patients in both groups received invasive mechanical ventilation at the time of study enrollment. COVID-19 and non-COVID-19 patients had similar rates of acute respiratory distress syndrome, severe acute kidney injury, and in-hospital mortality. While concentrations of interleukin 6 and 8 were not different between groups, markers of epithelial cell injury (soluble receptor for advanced glycation end products, sRAGE) and acute phase proteins (serum amyloid A, SAA) were significantly higher in COVID-19 compared to non-COVID-19, adjusting for demographics and APACHE III scores. In contrast, angiopoietin 2:1 (Ang-2:1 ratio) and soluble tumor necrosis factor receptor 1 (sTNFR-1), markers of endothelial dysfunction and inflammation, were significantly lower in COVID-19 (p < 0.002). Ang-2:1 ratio and SAA were associated with mortality only in non-COVID-19 patients. CONCLUSIONS: These studies demonstrate that, unlike other well-studied causes of critical illness, endothelial dysfunction may not be characteristic of severe COVID-19 early after ICU admission. Pathways resulting in elaboration of acute phase proteins and inducing epithelial cell injury may be promising targets for therapeutics in COVID-19.

A Case for Targeting Th17 Cells and IL-17A in SARS-CoV-2 Infections.

SARS-CoV-2, the virus causing COVID-19, has infected millions and has caused hundreds of thousands of fatalities. Risk factors for critical illness from SARS-CoV-2 infection include male gender, obesity, diabetes, and age >65. The mechanisms underlying the susceptibility to critical illness are poorly understood. Of interest, these comorbidities have previously been associated with increased signaling of Th17 cells. Th17 cells secrete IL-17A and are important for clearing extracellular pathogens, but inappropriate signaling has been linked to acute respiratory distress syndrome. Currently there are few treatment options for SARS-CoV-2 infections. This review describes evidence linking risk factors for critical illness in COVID-19 with increased Th17 cell activation and IL-17 signaling that may lead to increased likelihood for lung injury and respiratory failure. These findings provide a basis for testing the potential use of therapies directed at modulation of Th17 cells and IL-17A signaling in the treatment of COVID-19.

Covid-19 in Critically Ill Patients in the Seattle Region - Case Series.

BACKGROUND: Community transmission of coronavirus 2019 (Covid-19) was detected in the state of Washington in February 2020. METHODS: We identified patients from nine Seattle-area hospitals who were admitted to the intensive care unit (ICU) with confirmed infection with severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2). Clinical data were obtained through review of medical records. The data reported here are those available through March 23, 2020. Each patient had at least 14 days of follow-up. RESULTS: We identified 24 patients with confirmed Covid-19. The mean (±SD) age of the patients was 64±18 years, 63% were men, and symptoms began 7±4 days before admission. The most common symptoms were cough and shortness of breath; 50% of patients had fever on admission, and 58% had diabetes mellitus. All the patients were admitted for hypoxemic respiratory failure; 75% (18 patients) needed mechanical ventilation. Most of the patients (17) also had hypotension and needed vasopressors. No patient tested positive for influenza A, influenza B, or other respiratory viruses. Half the patients (12) died between ICU day 1 and day 18, including 4 patients who had a do-not-resuscitate order on admission. Of the 12 surviving patients, 5 were discharged home, 4 were discharged from the ICU but remained in the hospital, and 3 continued to receive mechanical ventilation in the ICU. CONCLUSIONS: During the first 3 weeks of the Covid-19 outbreak in the Seattle area, the most common reasons for admission to the ICU were hypoxemic respiratory failure leading to mechanical ventilation, hypotension requiring vasopressor treatment, or both. Mortality among these critically ill patients was high. (Funded by the National Institutes of Health.).